Although physiological research has been carried out since the work of Galen in the 2nd century AD, the field languished until the 17th and 18th centuries when a new era of discovery was stimulated by investigators like William Harvey and Stephen Hales in England, Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta in Italy, and Antoine de Lavoisier in France. Modern experimental physiology emerged in the second quarter of the 19th century when laboratories were established by François Magendie and Claude Bernard in France, and Johannes Müller in Germany...